VALID THRU: 03-May-2024

Assignment Briefs 09-10-2022

First part of the handbook covers the fundamentals of the computer. In the introduction, provide a summary of the historical development of computer systems since 1980s

Task 1

A. First part of the handbook covers the fundamentals of the computer. In the introduction, provide a summary of the historical development of computer systems since 1980s.

COMPUTER INTRODUCTION

An amazing machine! We are living in the computer age today and most of our day to day activities cannot be accomplished without using computers. Sometimes knowingly and sometimes unknowingly we use computers. Computer has become an indispensable and multipurpose tool. We are breathing in the computer age and gradually computer has become such a desire necessity of life that it is difficult to imagine life without it.

DEFINITION

For most of the people, computer is a machine used for a calculation or a computation, but actually it is much more than that. Precisely Computer is an electronic device for performing arithmetic and logical operation. Or “Computer is a device or a flexible machine to process data and converts it into information.”

DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER

Actually speaking electronic data processing does not go back more than just half a centaury i.e. they are in existence merely from early 1940’s. In early days when our ancestor used to reside in cave the counting was a problem. Still it is stated becoming difficult. When they started using stone to count their animals or the possession they never knew that this day will lead to a computer of today. People today started following a set of procedure to perform calculation with these stones, which later led to creation of a digital counting device, which was the predecessor the first calculating device invented, was know as ABACUS.

Computers from the 1980-1990s

1981: Not to be outdone by Apple, IBM releases their first personal computer, the Acorn, with an Intel chip, two floppy disks, and an available color monitor.

1982: Instead of going with its annual tradition of naming a “Man of the Year”, Time Magazine does something a little different and names the computer its “Machine of the Year”. A senior writer noted in the article, “Computers were once regarded as distant, ominous abstractions, like Big Brother. In 1982, they truly became personalized, brought down to scale, so that people could hold, prod and play with them."

1983: The CD-ROM hit the market, able to hold 550 megabytes of pre-recorded data. That same year, many computer companies worked to set a standard for these disks, making them able to be used freely to access a wide variety of information.

Later that year, Microsoft introduced Word, which was originally called Multi-Tool Word.

1984: Apple launches Macintosh, which was introduced during a Super Bowl XVIII commercial. The Macintosh was the first successful mouse-driven computer with a graphical user interface. It sold for $2,500.

1985: Microsoft announces Windows, which allowed for multi-tasking with a graphical user interface.

That same year, a small Massachusetts computer manufacturer registered the first dot com domain name, Symbolics.com.

Also, the programming language C++ is published and is said to make programming “more enjoyable” for the serious programmer.

1986: Originally called the Special Effects Computer Group, Pixar is created at Lucasfilm. It worked to create computer-animated portions of popular films, like Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan. Steve Jobs purchased Pixar in 1986 for $10 million, renaming it Pixar. It was bought by Disney in 2006.

1990: English programmer and physicist Tim Berners-Lee develops HyperText Markup Language, also known as HTML. He also prototyped the term WorldWideWeb. It features a server, HTML, URLs, and the first browser.

1991: Apple releases the Powerbook series of laptops, which included a built-in trackball, internal floppy disk, and palm rests. The line was discontinued in 2006.

1993: With an attempt to enter the handheld computer market, Apple releases Newton. Called the “Personal Data Assistant”, it never performed the way Apple President John Scully had hoped, and it was discontinued in 1998.

1995: IBM released the ThinkPad 701C, which was officially known as the Track Write, with an expanding full-sized keyboard that was comprised of three interlocking pieces.

Additionally, the format for a Digital Video Disc (DVD) is introduced, featuring a huge increase in storage space that the compact disc (CD).

Also that year, Microsoft’s Windows 95 operating system was launched. To spread the word, a $300 million promotional campaign was rolled out, featuring TV commercials that used “Start Me Up” by the Rolling Stones and a 30-minute video starring Matthew Perry and Jennifer Aniston. It was installed on more computers than any other operating system.

And, in the world of code, Java 1.0 is introduced by Sun Microsystems, followed by JavaScript at Netscape Communications.

1996: Sergey Brin and Larry Page develop Google at Stanford University.

That same year, Palm Inc., founded by Ed Colligan, Donna Dubinsky, and Jeff Hawkins created the personal data assistance called the Palm Pilot.

Also in 1996 was the introduction of the Sony Vaio series. This desktop computer featured an additional 3D interface in addition to the Windows 95 operating system, as a way to attract new users. The line was discontinued in 2014.

1997: Microsoft invests $150 million into Apple, which ended Apple’s court case against Microsoft, saying they copied the “look and feel” of their operating system.

1998: Apple releases the iMac, a range of all-in-one Macintosh desktop computers. Selling for $1,300, these computers included a 4GB hard drive, 32MB Ram, a CD-ROM, and a 15-inch monitor.

1999: The term Wi-Fi becomes part of the computing language as users begin connecting without wires. Without missing a beat, Apple creates its “Airport” Wi-Fi router and builds connectivity into Macs.

Computers from 2000-2010

2000: In Japan, SoftBank introduced the first camera phone, the J-Phone J-SH04. The camera had a maximum resolution of 0.11 megapixels, a 256-color display, and photos could be shared wirelessly. It was such a hit that a flip-phone version was released just a month later.

Also in 2000, the USB flash drive is introduced. Used for data storage, they were faster and had a greater amount of storage space than other storage media options. Plus, they couldn’t be scratched like CDs.

2001: Apple introduces the Mac OS X operating system. Not to be outdone, Microsoft unveiled Windows XP soon after.

Also, the first Apple stores are opened in Tysons Corner, Virginia, and Glendale, California. Apple also released iTunes, which allowed users to record music from CDs, burn it onto the program, and then mix it with other songs to create a custom CD.

2003: Apple releases iTunes music store, giving users the ability to purchase songs within the program. In less than a week after its debut, over 1 million songs were downloaded.

Also in 2003, the Blu-ray optical disc is released as the successor of the DVD.

And, who can forget the popular social networking site Myspace, which was founded in 2003. By 2005, it had more than 100 million users.

2004: The first challenger of Microsoft’s Internet Explorer came in the form of Mozilla’s Firefox 1.0. That same year, Facebook launched as a social networking site.

2005: YouTube, the popular video-sharing service, is founded by Jawed Karim, Steve Chen, and Chad Hurley. Later that year, Google acquired the mobile phone operating system Android.

2006: Apple unveiled the MacBook Pro, making it their first Intel-based, dual-core mobile computer.

That same year at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, the United Nations Development Program announced they were creating a program to deliver technology and resources to schools in under-developed countries. The project became the One Laptop per Child Consortium, which was founded by Nicholas Negroponte, the founder of MIT’s Media Lab. By 2011, over 2.4 million laptops had been shipped.

And, we can’t forget to mention the launch of Amazon Web Services, including Amazon Elastic Cloud 2 (EC2) and Amazon Simple Storage Service (S3). EC2 made it possible for users to use the cloud to scale server capacity quickly and efficiently. S3 was a cloud-based file hosting service that charged users monthly for the amount of data they stored.

2007: Apple released the first iPhone, bringing many computer functions to the palm of our hands. It featured a combination of a web browser, a music player, and a cell phone -- all in one. Users could also download additional functionality in the form of “apps”. The full-touchscreen smartphone allowed for GPS navigation, texting, a built-in calendar, a high-definition camera, and weather reports.

Also in 2007, Amazon released the Kindle, one of the first electronic reading systems to gain a large following among consumers.

And, Dropbox was founded by Arash Ferdowsi and Drew Houston as a way for users to have convenient storage and access to their files on a cloud-based service.

2008: Apple releases the MacBook Air, the first ultra notebook that was a thin and lightweight laptop with a high-capacity battery. To get it to be a smaller size, Apple replaced the traditional hard drive with a solid-state disk, making it the first mass-marketed computer to do so.

2009: Microsoft launched Windows 7.

2010: Apple released the iPad, officially breaking into the dormant tablet computer category. This new gadget came with many features the iPhone had, plus a 9-inch screen and minus the phone.

Computers from 2011 - present day

2011: Google releases the Chromebook, a laptop that runs on Google Chrome OS.

Also in 2011, the Nest Learning Thermostat emerges as one of the first Internet of Things, allowing for remote access to a user’s home thermostat by use of their smartphone or tablet. It also sent monthly power consumption reports to help customers save on energy bills.

In Apple news, co-founder Steve Jobs passed away on October 11. The brand also announced that the iPhone 4S will feature Siri, a voice-activated personal assistant.

2012: On October 4, Facebook hits 1 billion users, as well as acquires the image-sharing social networking application Instagram.

Also in 2012, the Raspberry Pi, a credit-card-sized single-board computer is released, weighing only 45 grams.

2014: The University of Michigan Micro Mote (M3), the smallest computer in the world, is created. Three types were made available, two of which measured either temperature or pressure, and one that could take images.

Additionally, the Apple Pay mobile payment system is introduced.

2015: Apple releases the Apple Watch, which incorporated Apple’s iOS operating system and sensors for environmental and health monitoring. Almost a million units were sold on the day of its release.

This release was followed closely by Microsoft announcing Windows 10.

2016: The first reprogrammable quantum computer is created.

2019: Apple announces iPadOS, the iPad`s very own operating system, to better support the device as it becomes more like a computer and less like a mobile device.

B. An explanation of the components of a modern computer and an assessment of different operating systems (such as: Windows, MacOS, Linux, UNIX, Fedora, Ubuntu etc.) used in modern computers.

As already mentioned, in addition to the hardware, a computer also needs a set of programs—an operating system—to control the devices. This page will discuss the following:

There are different kinds of operating systems: such as Windows, Linux and Mac OS
There are also different versions of these operating systems, e.g. Windows 7, 8 and 10
Operating systems can be used with different user interfaces (UI): text user interfaces (TUI) and graphical user interfaces (GUI) as examples
Graphical user interfaces have many similarities in different operating systems: such as the start menu, desktop etc.

When you can recognize the typical parts of each operating system’s user interface, you will mostly be able to use both Windows and Linux as well as e.g. Mac OS.

The role of operating system in the computer

An operating system (OS) is a set of programs which ensures the interoperability of the hardware and software in your computer. The operating system enables, among other things,

the identification and activation of devices connected to the computer,
the installation and use of programs, and
the handling of files.

Different operating systems

Over the years, several different operating systems have been developed for different purposes. The most typical operating systems in ordinary computers are Windows, Linux and Mac OS.

Windows

The name of the Windows OS comes from the fact that programs are run in “windows”: each program has its own window, and you can have several programs open at the same time. Windows is the most popular OS for home computers, and there are several versions of it. The newest version is Windows 10.

Linux and Unix

Linux is an open-source OS, which means that its program code is freely available to software developers. This is why thousands of programmers around the world have developed Linux, and it is considered the most tested OS in the world. Linux has been very much influenced by the commercial Unix OS.

In addition to servers, Linux is widely used in home computers, since there are a great number of free programs for it (for text and image processing, spreadsheets, publishing, etc.). Over the years, many different versions of Linux have become available for distribution, most of which are free for the user (such as Ubuntu, Fedora and Mint, to name a few).

Linux can be installed on a PC as the only operating system or alongside Windows, so that each time the machine is started, the user selects either one. Linux may also be used on a virtual computer from the Windows environment, or vice versa, Windows from Linux.

Mac OS X

Apple’s Mac computers have their own operating system, OS X. Most of the programs that are available for PCs are also available for Macs running under OS X, but these two types of computers cannot use the exact same programs: for example, you cannot install the Mac version of the Microsoft Office suite on a Windows computer. You can install other operating systems on Mac computers, but the OS X is only available for computers made by Apple. Apple’s lighter portable devices (iPads, iPhones) use a light version of the same operating system, called iOS.

Mac computers are popular because OS X is considered fast, easy to learn and very stable and Apple’s devices are considered well-designed—though rather expensive.

Android

Android is an operating system designed for phones and other mobile devices. Android is not available for desktop computers, but in mobile devices it is extremely popular: more than a half of all mobile devices in the world run on Android.

C. Conclude the first part of the handbook by providing a clear differentiation between the client and server environments of the Open2reach operation.

Network History

Computer networking got a big boost in the middle of the 20th century as the U.S. Defense Department’s Advanced Research Projects Agency Network project developed specifications for a network that could use heterogeneous equipment to connect a number of entities to the network. That grew into what we know as the Internet, and the networking principles have been incorporated into most modern networks.

LANs

LANs are typically confined to a single building or location. LANs may be large or small, and they may employ a number of wiring concentrators called switches or hubs to centrally connect computing devices to the network. LANs are useful for sharing resources such as printers or storage among network users. This helps a business cut down on the costs incurred with multiple printers and other resources.

Network Models

The two basic LAN models are client-server and peer-to-peer. In a peer-to-peer network, all computers on the network share each other’s resources, including disk storage and attached printers. Although this works well for networks with fewer than 10 users, more users make for an administrative problem, requiring an upgrade to a client-server model. Technically, a peer-to-peer network can perform client-server functions as a computer provides access to a resource for another computer.

Client-Server Networks

In a client-server model, resources are connected to dedicated servers that centralize storage, printing, backups and more services. Other computers on the network, called clients, connect to the servers to get access to the shared resources. The servers in a client-server model run network operating system software, which manages user authentication and resource access.

D. Second part of the handbook illustrates networking principles and their protocols. Provide a description of the network standards and protocols and evaluate the impact of different network standards on the Open2reach operation.

Network protocols

Network protocols are a set of rules, conventions, and data structures that dictate how devices exchange data across networks. In other words, network protocols can be equated to languages that two devices must understand for seamless communication of information, regardless of their infrastructure and design disparities.

The OSI model: How network protocols work

To understand the nuances of network protocols , it`s imperative to know about the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model first. Considered the primary architectural model for internet working communications, the majority of network protocols used today are structurally based on the OSI model.

The OSI model splits the communication process between two network devices into 7 layers. A task or group of tasks is assigned to each of these 7 layers. All the layers are self-contained, and the tasks assigned to them can be executed independently.

To put this into context, here is a representation of the communication process between two network devices following the OSI model:

Classification of network protocols

Now that you know how the OSI model works, you can dive straight into the classification of protocols. The following are some of the most prominent protocols used in network communication.

Application layer network protocols

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

DHCP is a communication protocol that enables network administrators to automate the assignment of IP addresses in a network. In an IP network, every device connecting to the internet requires a unique IP. DHCP lets network admins distribute IP addresses from a central point and automatically send a new IP address when a device is plugged in from a different place in the network. DHCP works on a client-server model.

DNS: Domain Name System protocol

The DNS protocol helps in translating or mapping host names to IP addresses. DNS works on a client-server model, and uses a distributed database over a hierarchy of name servers.

Hosts are identified based on their IP addresses, but memorizing an IP address is difficult due to its complexity. IPs are also dynamic, making it all the more necessary to map domain names to IP addresses. DNS helps resolve this issue by converting the domain names of websites into numerical IP addresses.

FTP: File Transfer Protocol

File Transfer Protocol enables file sharing between hosts, both local and remote, and runs on top of TCP. For file transfer, FTP creates two TCP connections: control and data connection. The control connection is used to transfer control information like passwords, commands to retrieve and store files, etc., and the data connection is used to transfer the actual file. Both of these connections run in parallel during the entire file transfer process.

HTTP: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

HTTP is an application layer protocol used for distributed, collaborative, and hypermedia information systems. It works on a client-server model, where the web browser acts as the client. Data such as text, images, and other multimedia files are shared over the World Wide Web using HTTP. As a request and response type protocol, the client sends a request to the server, which is then processed by the server before sending a response back to the client.

IMAP and IMAP4: Internet Message Access Protocol (version 4)

IMAP is an email protocol that lets end users access and manipulate messages stored on a mail server from their email client as if they were present locally on their remote device. IMAP follows a client-server model, and lets multiple clients access messages on a common mail server concurrently.

POP and POP3: Post Office Protocol (version 3)

The Post Office Protocol is also an email protocol. Using this protocol, the end user can download emails from the mail server to their own email client. Once the emails are downloaded locally, they can be read without an internet connection. Also, once the emails are moved locally, they get deleted from the mail server, freeing up space. POP3 is not designed to perform extensive manipulations with the messages on the mail server, unlike IMAP4. POP3 is the latest version of the Post Office Protocol

SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

SMTP is a protocol designed to transfer electronic mail reliably and efficiently. SMTP is a push protocol and is used to send the email, whereas POP and IMAP are used to retrieve emails on the end user`s side. SMTP transfers emails between systems and notifies on incoming emails. Using SMTP, a client can transfer an email to another client on the same network or another network through a relay or gateway access available to both networks.

Telnet: Terminal emulation protocol

Telnet is an application layer protocol that enables a user to communicate with a remote device. A Telnet client is installed on the user`s machine, which accesses the command line interface of another remote machine that runs a Telnet server program.

Telnet is mostly used by network administrators to access and manage remote devices. To access a remote device, a network admin needs to enter the IP or host name of the remote device, after which they will be presented with a virtual terminal that can interact with the host.

E. Using industry examples, assess different network topologies and differentiate between network hardware and software.

Physical network topology examples include star, mesh, tree, ring, point-to-point, circular, hybrid, and bus topology networks, each consisting of different configurations of nodes and links. The ideal network topology depends on each business`s size, scale, goals, and budget.

Task 2

A. Demonstrate how to assemble modern computer components to make a clone PC.

B. Troubleshoot at least 5 Windows/ Unix/ MacOS/ Linux OS errors in a laboratory environment. Ensure you log all the activities.

1. Windows Update Error 0x80070057

Sometimes, a specific Windows error code doesn`t give you much help. Recurring errors often spout out a different code each time, making it hard to nail down the exact cause. But there`s one error code that nearly every Windows user knows: 0x80070057. It`s been around since Windows XP and typically shows up when Windows Update runs into problems.

2. DLL Errors

A Dynamic Link Library (DLL) is a shared file that many programs can call upon to perform some action. These are built into Windows so that every piece of software doesn`t have to create its own method of, say, printing a test page. No matter which printer software you`re using, whenever you click Print Test Page, it calls the default Windows method.

3. Security Certificate Errors

Security certificates are at the center of keeping you securely connected to websites. Website owners that use a secure HTTPS connection must pay a third-party Certificate Authority (CA) like GoDaddy or Norton to obtain a valid certificate.

Your browser keeps a list of legitimate CAs that it trusts. When you visit a secure website and its certificate matches the one your browser expects, everything proceeds smoothly. If there`s a mismatch, you see an error that the website might not be secure.

4. Blue Screen Stop Errors

Blue screen errors, known as the Blue Screen of Death (BSoD), are the most infamous Windows errors of all. They occur when Windows runs into a problem that it can`t fix and simply shuts down to avoid damage.

Once filled with technical data that most people couldn`t decipher, Microsoft has revamped the blue screen into a much simpler form for Windows 8 and above. It now contains a frowning face, a basic Your PC ran into a problem message, and an error code.

5. Access Denied Folder Errors

Not all errors are cryptic. Sometimes when you try to open a certain folder, Windows will bark at you and let you know that you don`t have appropriate permissions. Assuming you`re a PC administrator, you can quickly fix this to let Windows know that you are, indeed, the owner. If you`re using a standard account, you can`t view protected system folders and other users` files by design. Talk to whoever is in charge of your PC or log into an administrator account to access these folders.

C. Install both client and server operating systems within a given timeframe.

1. From the application splash screen, click Install Client and Application Server.

The setup wizard appears.

2. Click Application Server.

The Application Server Type page appears.

3. Select Core server, and then click Next.

The License Agreement page appears.

4. Review the license agreement, and then click I Agree.

The Installation Folders and Architecture page appears.

5. Proceed as applicable based on the architecture of your computer.

6. To integrate Active Directory Lightweight Directory Services (AD LDS), do one of the following:

If AD LDS is NOT installed, then (You are given information regarding its use. If it is not required, then click Next.)

Installed in a test and/or development environment (Select the Do not use Microsoft Directory Services check box, and then click Next.)

Installed in a production environment and Click Next.

7. If you are using AD LDS, perform the following procedure:

Clear they Do not use AD LDS check box.
In the Directory Instance section, in the Name field, enter an instance name for the ADAM directory.
In the Port (LDAP) and Port (SSL) fields, enter valid port numbers.
In the User Credentials section, in the Name field, enter the name of a user that is a member of a local computer`s Administrators Group.
In the Domain field, enter the name of your company`s domain.
In the Password field, enter the password for the user you entered in the Name field.

Etc.…

D. Configure client systems to meet Open2reach`s organizational policies.

???

E. Configure a network for Open2reach using routing and switching techniques.

Switching techniques

In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The switching technique will decide the best route for data transmission.

Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one communication.

References:

https://wikieducator.org/History_of_Computer_Development

https://www.g2.com/articles/history-of-computers

https://blogs.helsinki.fi/students-digital-skills/1-introduction-to-the-use-of-computers/1-1-computer-functionality/operating-system-and-user-interface/

https://smallbusiness.chron.com/difference-between-clientserver-environment-lan-69763.html